Finally, it should be noted that the military culture of the early twentieth century was heavily geared toward what was called the cult of the offensive. We live in a different time. . The term alliance is of broad usage, often used alongside expressions such as strategic partnership or defense agreement.. This excludes US partnerships with major non-NATO allies, a badly named category of arrangements designed to facilitate security assistance and arms transfers but that does not entail any defense commitment to the designated country.9US Department of State, Major Non-NATO Ally Status, Fact Sheet, Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, January 20, 2021, https://www.state.gov/major-nonnato-ally-status/. Signatories were the United States, Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and the United Kingdom. Ultimately, security guarantees may work as reassurance, but fail not only at deterrence but also at collective defense. In fact, in recent years Moscow has started to use the words alliance or allied to qualify its relationship with Beijing.70Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan, Russia-China Strategic Alliance Gets a New Boost with Missile Early Warning System,Diplomat, October 25, 2019, https://thediplomat.com/2019/10/russia-china-strategic-alliance-gets-a-new-boost-with-missile-early-warning-system/. . entangle: [verb] to wrap or twist together : interweave. Another uncertainty relates to the exact definition of protected territories, the centerpiece of security guarantees. The reference to a possible 1914-like sequence of events in reference to how the European alliance system is said to have facilitated the march to general war by chain-gangingthus seems off. This author was wrong when he surmised in 2004 that permanent multinational alliances appear increasingly to belong to the past.2Bruno Tertrais, The Changing Nature of Military Alliances,The Washington Quarterly27, no. Absent consensus, nothing would prevent the collective exercise of self-defenseespecially since NATOs supreme commander in Europe is also commander of US Forces in Europehowever, collective NATO-only assets would not be accessible. The latest historical research on the origins of World War I is inconsistent with the chain-ganging hypothesis.117Tierney, Does Chain-Ganging Cause, 299. The Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistancethe Rio Treatywas also invoked in 2001, as well as in 2019 (regarding the situation in Venezuela).26Congressional Research Service, The Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance and the Crisis in Venezuela, Insights (series), Version 8, Updated December 11, 2019, https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IN/IN11116. Ensuring stability also requires that governments take a closer look at how their burgeoning security partnerships are perceived by potential adversaries. by Jacob G. Hornberger. To be sure, there have been dents in the web of legacy alliances. A Russian attack against a non-NATO EU member would trigger Article 42.7 of the TEU, but how would Southern European NATO members react? Finland and Sweden have applied to NATO membership given the war in Ukraine, and were given security guarantees by several Alliance members to ensure their protection in the interim period. /e/entangling.htm - 6k As early as 1991, NATO allies declared that the consolidation and preservation throughout the continent of democratic societies and their freedom from any form of coercion or intimidation are therefore of direct and material concern to us.31Partnership with the Countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Statement, North Atlantic Council Meeting in Ministerial Session in Copenhagen, June 6-7, 1991, NATO Online Library, https://www.nato.int/docu/comm/49-95/c910607d.htm. A classic case of this for the United States was Vietnam. Robert G. Bell, NATO Nuclear Burden-Sharing Post-Crimea: What Constitutes Free-Riding? (doctoral dissertation, Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, June 2021), 61. Alliances are modernizing and reinforcing themselves, with bilateral or multilateral military partnerships proliferating and expanding. Clear-cut cases of aggression triggering security guarantees include the following scenarios: a Russian attack against Poland, the Baltic states or Turkey; a North Korean offensive against South Korea; a Chinese operation against Taiwan; a China-Japan fight over the Senkaku islands; a North Korean strike against Japan; a China-Philippines war in the South China Sea; and an Iranian attack against a Gulf State or Israel. A problem with this measurement is that its overly narrow definition of entanglement may overlook cases of the phenomenon in the empirical record. A second, broader definition includes close defense partnerships which do not include a security guarantee but may nevertheless be interpreted by at least one of the partiesan ally or an adversaryas quasi alliances. New Atlanticist Kathleen J. McInnis, The Competitive Advantages and Risks of Alliances, Heritage Foundation, October 30, 2019, Michael Beckley, The Myth of Entangling Alliances: Reassessing the Security Risks of US Pacts,. The causes of World War I have been debated since it endedbut the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was an early catalyst. Entangling Alliances. Look it up now! also one of the causes that made Britain explode (Britain was a powder keg at the time). Image: Soldiers stand near their armoured vehicles during Defender Europe 2022 military exercise of NATO troops including French, American, and Polish troops, amid the Russian invasion of Ukraine, at the military range in Bemowo Piskie, near Orzysz, Poland May 24, 2022. Learn more. In 2020, Greece and the UAE signed a security agreement that reportedly contained a mutual defense clause.60Vassilis Nedos, Greece, UAE Commit to Mutual Defense Assistance,Ekathimerini, November 23, 2020, https://www.ekathimerini.com/news/259450/ greece-uae-commit-to-mutual-defense-assistance/. Two additional arguments will make this clearer. After all, isnt the US Secretary of States own rock band called Coalition of the Willing? To be sure, Russia claims that NATOs role in the ex-Yugoslavia or in Libya is the proof of its offensive nature, but such compellence (i.e., coercive) operations were designed to protect civilians, not, say, to invade a country. Dec 7, 2021, By Catastrophes, when they come, are often the product of misperceptions. Qatar has since joined and the total number (including Taiwan) is now 20.61US Department of State, Major Non-NATO Ally Status, Fact Sheet Washington is also stepping up its cooperation with non-NATO Northern European countries.62Aaron Mehta, Finland, Sweden, and US Sign Trilateral Agreement, with Eye on Increased Exercises,Defense News, May 9, 2018, https://www.defensenews.com/training-sim/2018/05/09/finland-sweden-and-us-sign-trilateral-agreement-with-eye-on-increased-exercises/. The protection of a weaker power remains a vehicle for political influence, commercial benefits (notably arms sales),80A. The same problem exists with major cyberattacks, which could qualify as armed attacks warranting self-defense only if attribution could be ascertainedsomething which may be extremely difficult. eign / frn; fr-/ adj. It is not widely known that during the Obama administration, for the first time ever, the United States formally clarified to allies that should a crisis arise in the NATO Treaty Area, a significant portion of its capabilities and capacity might be committed to Combatant Commands in other regions and hence not available to NATO.122Robert G. Bell, NATO Nuclear Burden-Sharing Post-Crimea: What Constitutes Free-Riding? (doctoral dissertation, Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, June 2021), 61. Using Quad to Build Indo-Pacific NATO,Hindu, October 13, 2020, https://www.thehindu.com/news/ international/china-fm-calls-us-indo-pacific-strategy-a-huge-security-risk/article32844084.ece. In his farewell address, Washington exhorted Americans to set aside their violent likes and dislikes of foreign nations, lest they be controlled by their passions: "The nation which indulges toward another an habitual hatred or an habitual fondness is in some degree a slave.". And if war erupted somewhere, what would be the risks of escalation? They show goodwill by siding with their protectors on contested issues. Despite the closeness between Pakistan and China, Islamabad insists that it does not want to be part of any bloc.118Ayaz Gul, Pakistans PM Urges US, China to Reduce Tensions, Voice of America, December 9, 2021, https://www.voanews.com/a/pakistan-s-pm-urgesus-china-to-reduce-tensions/6346614.html. He understood the necessity of certain alliances in dire emergencies, but his general view of foreign policy . The dawning multipolar world, featuring an increasingly dense network of security arrangements, uncomfortably reminds us of the years 1912- 1914, shortly before the outbreak of World War I. 1 / 21. definition: military is the goal. Just because they are nations that might align with our values doesn't mean we have to be militarily committed to them. Meanwhile, France updated its own defense agreements with eight former African colonies, no longer committing itself to automatically defend seven of them (the outlier being Djibouti).23Jean-Franois Guilhaudis, Les accords de dfense de deuxime gnration, entre la France et divers pays africains, Centre dtudes sur la scurit internationale et les cooprations europennes, June 1, 2021, https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01978366. Contrary to NATOs Article 5, the EUs Article 42.7 does not require consensus: any EU country can invoke it to support an attacked member. The most significant caveat of the majority of treaty-based commitments is the very notion of armed attack, the casus fderis of defense alliances. In 2020, majorities of Americans wanted to either maintain or increase the US military presence in the Asia-Pacific region (78%), Africa (73%), Latin America (73%), Europe (71%), and the Middle East (68%).49Dina Smeltz et al.,A Foreign Policy for the Middle Class: What Americans Think, Results of the 2020 Council Survey of American Public Opinion and US Foreign Policy, Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, 2021, https://www.thechicagocouncil.org/sites/default/files/2021-10/ccs2021_fpmc_0.pdf. These alliances weren't the sole cause of World War I, as some historians . Significance: Entangling Alliances one of the five reason of World War 1. Amanda Macias and Tucker Higgins, Trump Says Defending Tiny NATO Ally Montenegro Could Result in World War III, CNBC, June 18, 2018, Emmanuel Macron Warns Europe: NATO Is Becoming Brain-dead,. Since 1945, alliances have lasted fourteen years on average, compared with eight years before then.75Breet Ashley Leeds et al., Reevaluating Alliance Reliability: Specific Threats, Specific Promises,The Journal of Conflict Resolution44, no. Author Jason W. Davidson examines these alliances to shed light on their nature and what they reveal about the evolution of American power. 1 (1997): 156-179, doi: 10.1080/00396339708442901. Separately, the five Nordic countries set up a common defense cooperation framework (NORDEFCO) in 2009. These strat-egists argue that security relationships harm U.S. security by incentivizing allies and partners to take risky actions that threaten to draw the United States into conflict or by causing the United States to expand its definition The Roots of World War I and the Risk of US-China Conflict(Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2014). Since 1815, offensive alliances have become a rarity. Neither Israel nor the United States was ever interested in forging a true defense pact. isolationism, national policy of avoiding political or economic entanglements with other countries. The consolidation of the Western system of alliances in Asia was made even stronger in 2021, when Australian and Japanese officials made it clearer that their countries would support the United States in a conflict over Taiwan.43Reuters, Inconceivable Australia Would Not Join US to Defend Taiwan: Australian Defence Minister, November 13, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/ world/asia-pacific/inconceivable-australia-would-not-join-us-defend-taiwan-australian-defence-2021-11-12/; Reuters, Japan Deputy PM Comment on Defending Taiwan if Invaded Angers China, July 6, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/japans-aso-peaceful-solution-desirable-any-taiwancontingency-2021-07-06/; and Jeffrey W. Hornung, Taiwan and Six Potential New Years Resolutions for the US-Japanese Alliance, War on the Rocks, January 5, 2022, https://warontherocks.com/2022/01/taiwan-and-six-potential-new-years-resolutions-for-the-u-s-japanese-alliance/. John Psaropoulous, Greece Ratifies Landmark Intra-NATO Defence Pact with France,. The alliances did not entangle us; either life itself did it, or we did it to ourselves. The 1971 Five Power Defense Arrangements, which commit its members to consult in case of an armed attack against Malaysia or Singapore, are given a new life, due in particular to British and Australian interest.69Euan Graham, The Five Power Defence Arrangements at 50: Whats Next?, Analysis, International Institute for Strategic Studies (blog), December 10, 2020, https://www.iiss.org/blogs/analysis/2020/12/five-power-defence-arrangements. The new AUKUS trilateral security partnership set up in September 2021 brings together Canberra, London, and Washington. North Korean, Iranian and, to some extent, Turkish foreign policies have also contributed to various states seeking new defense partnerships for mutual protection. Entangling alliances with none definition at Dictionary.com, a free online dictionary with pronunciation, synonyms and translation. NATO Public Diplomacy Division, NATO Audience Research: Presummit Polling Results 2021, June 11, 2021. "Perhaps love is a minor madness. This report advocates for a US-India digital handshake to overcome substantive and institutional barriers in US-India digital economic cooperation. Note also that the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) includes a solidarity clause (Article 222) that can be invoked in case of terrorist attack. Almost all defense commitments have significant caveats that are stabilizing.87The Article 5 language was a compromise between the language of the Rio and Brussels treaties. The causes of World War I, also known as the Great War, have . Renato De Castro, Washingtons Changing Position on the 1951 Mutual Defense Treaty, BusinessWorld, September 28, 2021. 3. to make complicated; confuse. Jean-Franois Guilhaudis, Les accords de dfense de deuxime gnration, entre la France et divers pays africains, Centre dtudes sur la scurit internationale et les cooprations europennes, June 1, 2021. In the late nineteenth and the early twentieth century, Europe experienced fast economic development marked by rising political tensions between great powers. NATOs Article 5 was invoked for the first time ever. Moreover, except in rare cases, they are generic as opposed to threat specific (i.e., designed to face one single, explicitly identified threat73This is the case for the US commitment to the South-East Asia Treaty (see below).). 1. of, from, in, or characteristic of a country or language other than one's own: a foreign language. Jun 16, 2022. Two Asian countries that are members of the Manila Pact are also covered by other US commitments (the Philippines by treaty, Thailand through the Rusk-Thanat Communiqu of 1962). The result is a network of interlocking defense relationships, to which an ever-thicker layer of new security groupings and quasi alliances is being added. The Trump presidency also highlighted the possibility of a nightmare scenario for Europeans: what if the United States refused to fulfill its promise to defend them in case of Russian aggression? This dynamic will increase as both neoimperial behaviors develop and as the scope of contested spaces expandsat sea, in cyberspace, and in outer space. Rpublique franaise, Dcret n 2012-495 du 16 avril 2012 portant publication de laccord entre le Gouvernement de la Rpublique franaise et le Gouvernement des Emirats arabes unis relatif la coopration en matire de dfense, sign Abou Dabi le 26 mai 2009, et de laccord sous forme dchange de lettres relatif linterprtation de laccord de coopration en matire de dfense, signes Paris le 15 dcembre 2010, Journal officiel de la Rpublique franaise, April 18, 2012. France and the United Kingdom, by virtue of their permanent membership of the UN Security Council and their roles in the Indo-Pacific region, would have specific reasons to participate in such scenarios. Those forged by the Soviet Union have disappeared. The USSRs Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance with North Korea (1961), which involved a defense commitment, was replaced in 2000 by a Treaty on Friendship, Good Neighborliness and Cooperation, which includes a mere commitment not to side with any attacking party.20Russia and North Korea Sign Friendship Treaty,Monitorvol. In addition to the MLA, Chicago, and APA styles, your school, university, publication, or institution may have its own requirements for citations. In Europe, during the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth century, military alliances in particular were prevalent, as countries sought to defend . And for the first time, a majority of Americans (52%) supported using US troops if China were to invade Taiwan.50Smeltz et al.,A Foreign Policy for the Middle Class. The US system of alliances is unique in human history.76Kathleen J. McInnis, The Competitive Advantages and Risks of Alliances, Heritage Foundation, October 30, 2019, https://www.heritage.org/militarystrength-essays/2020-essays/the-competitive-advantages-and-risks-alliances. Alliances are regularly described as being in crisis. Yet as Alexander Lanoszka puts it, dysfunction is a permanent feature of alliance politics, not a temporary bug.25Lanoszka,Military Alliances, 193. Report Composed of a bunch of puppet regimes in eastern Europe, the Warsaw Pact was an honorable sentry for Moscow's paranoid central planners. Thomas Wilkins concurred with Khanna and wrote in 2012 that informal security arrangements (alignments) would be the future international security standard.6Thomas S. Wilkins, Alignment, not Alliance: The Shifting Paradigm of International Security Cooperation: Toward a Conceptual Taxonomy of Alignment,Review of International Studies38, no. In one section, she discusses "The Temptations of the Client State" and the . America's Entangling Alliances offers a corrective to long-held assumptions about US foreign policy and is relevant to current public and academic debates about the costs and benefits of America's allies. US alliances were successfully tested in 2001. The US-Philippines treatys scope is the metropolitan territory of either of the Parties, or on the island territories under its jurisdiction in the Pacific or on its armed forces, public vessels, or aircraft in the Pacific.92Mutual Defense Treaty between the United States and the Republic of the Philippines, August 30, 1951, https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/phil001.asp. And today more than ever, red lines are drawn over gray areas. The United States stands out as a security guarantor due to the combination of its enjoyable location, its democratic nature, and its unparalleled power. "Alliances are at the center of the lively debate about US grand strategy, and that debate is more relevant than it has been in decades. Meaning of entangling. Meanwhile, Russia and China started developing a tighter defense partnership after signing their Friendship and Cooperation Treaty in 2001, which was renewed in 2011 and 2021. Using Quad to Build Indo-Pacific NATO,, Ash Jain, Matthew Kroenig, and Jonas Parello-Plesner, Atlantic Council US-India Digital Economy Task Force. . When the USSR collapsed in 1991, so did this alliance. Author Jason W. Davidson examines these alliances to shed light on their nature and what they reveal about the evolution of American power. Zaur Shiriyev, Institutionalizing a Trilateral Strategic Partnership: Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey, Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, Policy Paper, 2016. As suggested above, failure to obtain consensus in the NAC would not paralyze action: collective self-defense would still be possible (though without NATO common assets). This definition of alliance also excludes collective security organizations such as the Organization for the Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), as well as groupings such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO).10Vali Kaleji, The Shanghai Cooperation Organization Is No New Warsaw Pact or Eastern NATO,National Interest, November 13, 2021, https://nationalinterest.org/feature/shanghai-cooperation-organization-no-%E2%80%98new-warsaw%E2%80%99-or-%E2%80%98easternnato%E2%80%99-196138. the defense-alliance trio known as AUKUS, or coalitions for given operations such as those in Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq, or Libya. Imperialism was an encouragement for militarism to take place because it created a . . It was not a given that the Alliance would survive the Iraq War and major transatlantic crises such as the Snowden affair. President Macron famously wondered whether the Alliance was in danger of brain death.22Emmanuel Macron Warns Europe: NATO Is Becoming Brain-dead,Economist, November 7, 2019, https://www.economist.com/europe/2019/11/07/ emmanuel-macron-warns-europe-nato-is-becoming-brain-dead. How did Alliance systems contribute to the outbreak of World War I? How Nationalism In The Balkans Contributed To The Outbeak Of WW1. Deterrence is an improbable proposition, but it does seem to work. This is the case for two of the most important ones: NATO and the CSTO. And in 1801, the nation's third president, Thomas Jefferson, in his inaugural address, summed up American isolationism as a doctrine of "peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none" Modern alliances are defensive in nature and, as a result, are more resilient and durable than aggression-oriented pacts of the distant past. Additionally, Paris and London have recognized since 1995 that their own vital interests are nearly identical, paving the way for mutual nuclear defense.37Bruno Tertrais,Entente Nuclaire: Options for UK-French Nuclear Cooperation, Discussion Paper 3, Basic Trident Commission, British-American Security Information Office, June 2018, https://basicint.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/entente_nucleaire_basic_trident_commission.pdf. This is also true for some bilateral defense commitments such as the Franco-Greek one of 2021, which includes the condition that both parties must jointly find that an armed aggression has taken place. Nor was it a given, more generally, that US alliances would survive the Obama and Trump eras, when attention given to most allies was less important than it had been in the past. Abstract. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) considers that its characterization requires a relatively large scale . Significance: Entangling Alliances one of the five reason of World War 1. Still, the unprecedented contemporary web of alliances leaves many questions open as to how it would operate in wartime. This has rendered them capable of confronting the reemergence (Russia) or growth (North Korea, China) of perceived threats, or to be the vehicle for dealing with new ones such as terrorism. Pre-First World War Alliances. Mexico, for its part, withdrew from the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistancethe Rio Treatyin 2002 to protest against US foreign policy. The first ever in-person summit of the leaders of the four countries was held in September 2021. See more. UkraineAlert is a comprehensive online publication that provides regular news and analysis on developments in Ukraines politics, economy, civil society, and culture. Sweden to Join NATO Response Force and Exercise Steadfast Jazz, NATO, Newsroom (website), October 14, 2013. Allies return the favor when they participate in operations led by their protector, for instance in the Middle East and Central Asia for the United States, or in the Sahel for France. Likewise, an improbable, but not farfetched, scenario calling for Washington to play a mediating role could involve South Korea and Japan. Allies in fact often play the role of a brake on escalation. cms, https://www.elysee.fr/emmanuel-macron/2019/08/27/discours-du-president-de-la-republique-a-la-conference-des-ambassadeurs-1, http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/61719, https://www.scmp.com/news/china/ diplomacy/article/3140798/russia-relationship-better-alliance-chinese-foreign-minister, https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/l/treaty/ collectivedefense/index.htm. Whatever the outcome of the Russian invasion, NATO will likely have to provide some form of security guarantees for the Ukraine that emerges on the other side. These countries are thus now protected by concentric circles of alliances resembling a set of matryoshka dolls. Jun 20, 2022, By 2 (Spring 2004), https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/legacy_files/files/publication/twq04springtertrais.pdf. In 2010, the CTSOs mutual defense provisions were significantly reinforced to include other forms of armed attack that threaten the security, stability, territorial integrity and sovereignty of the parties.53Collective Security Treaty, Collective Security Treaty Organization, https://en.odkb-csto.org/documents/documents/dogovor_o_kollektivnoy_ bezopasnosti/; Presidency of Russia, Protocol on Amendments to the Collective Security Treaty Has Been Submitted to the State Duma for Ratification, August 31, 2011, http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/12507/print. Today, the US administration is expanding and consolidating these links seeking to build a latticework of alliances and partnerships globally that are fit for purpose for the twenty-first century.79A Conversation With Jake Sullivan, Council on Foreign Relations, December 17, 2021, https://www.cfr.org/event/conversation-jake-sullivan. What does entangling expression mean? . Ayaz Gul, Pakistans PM Urges US, China to Reduce Tensions, Voice of America, December 9, 2021, China Believes That America Is Forging Alliances to Stop Its Rise,, Artyom Lukin, JAUKUS and the Emerging Clash of Alliances in the Pacific,, Robert Farley, Can the US Military Still Fight a Two Front War and Win?,. While the United States has the largest number of inherited security commitments that persist to this day, there are several others worth considering. During the war . Definition and examples. The growth of the Western system of military alliances and partnerships is partly a consequence of the radicalization of Russian and Chinese policies. This was for the first time confirmed at the presidential level by Barack Obama, orally, in 2014, and then more solemnly by Donald Trump, in writing, in 2017.39Brian Victoria, The Shifting US Position over the Senkaku Islands, East Asia Forum, November 13, 2020, https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2020/11/13/theshifting-us-position-over-the-senkaku-islands/. Our programs and centers deliver in-depth, highly relevant issue briefs and reports that break new ground, shift opinions, and set agendas on public policy, with a focus on advancing debates by integrating foundational research and analysis with concrete policy solutions. The United States is also reinforcing its defense cooperation with Australia, and both countries now agree that their alliance is also valid for defending against cyberattacks.41US Department of State, Joint Statement on Australia-US Ministerial Consultations (AUSMIN) 2021, Press Release, Office of the Spokesperson, September 16, 2021, https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-australia-u-s-ministerial-consultations-ausmin-2021/; ANZUS 2.0.: Cybersecurity and Australia-US Relations, Special Report, Australian Security Policy Institute, April 2012, https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/161646/SR46_cybersecurity_v2.pdf. This shift was confirmed by the 2018 Nuclear Posture Review.46US Department of Defense, Nuclear Posture Review Report, 2010, https://dod.defense.gov/News/Special-Reports/NPR/; and US Department of Defense, Nuclear Posture Review, 2018, https://dod.defense.gov/News/SpecialReports/2018NuclearPostureReview.aspx. There is no need for complacency. US Department of State, Joint Statement on Australia-US Ministerial Consultations (AUSMIN) 2021, Press Release, Office of the Spokesperson, September 16, 2021. Four former NATO chiefs gathered at the Atlantic Council to weigh in on the Alliances response to the war in Ukraine, enlargement, and the next plays in its playbook. Three of them (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) have agreed in 2021 to enhance operational cooperation.63Swedish Ministry of Defense, The Defense Ministers of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden Sign Statement of Intent on Enhanced Operational Cooperation, September 24, 2021, https://www.government.se/press-releases/2021/09/the-defence-ministers-of-denmark-norway-and-sweden-sign-a-trilateralstatement-of-intent-on-enhanced-operational-cooperation/. Strive to have friends, for life without friends is like life on . What exactly does armed attack mean in a century of hybrid threats, from election interference and political manipulation to cyberattacks, frozen conflicts, little green men in Europe, and land reclamation in Asia?96In international law, armed attack authorizes self-defense and differs from mere aggression. The French language obfuscates the difference between the two by using the expression agression arme for armed attack. In its landmark 1986 Nicaragua decision, the ICJ stated that armed attack may include the sending or on behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregular or mercenaries provided that the adverse State has effective control over them.97Karl Zemanek, Armed Attack,Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law(Oxford: Oxford University Press, October 2013), https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e241. Pronunciation, synonyms and translation another uncertainty relates to the outbreak of World I. 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