Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the Western Region. (This was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time.) In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. On 9 May 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. The first missions were opened by the Church of England's Church Missionary Society (CMS). Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. Definition of Colonialism Colonialism means a system which the Europeans adopted in ruling the colonies of Africa to their own benefits. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Examples of passive resistance include complex and/or costly application processes, a failure to provide guidance on how to request information, or enforcement mechanisms that are difficult to use. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging Westernised elite. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed Samuel Ajayi Crowther as the first Anglican Bishop of the Niger. Most people under colonialism lived their lives normally until a policy like this came about. How did Africans resist c. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. In the Bight of Biafra, the major ports were Old Calabar (Akwa Akpa), Bonny and New Calabar. By 18261850, the British Royal Navy was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. Asante Resistance (Ghana) 6. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.[26]. The Action Group was largely the creation of Chief Obafemi Awolowo, General Secretary of Egbe Omo Oduduwa and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. As a latecomer in the struggle for colonies, Germany had to settle for four territories, called "protectorates," in . They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. The present attempt is to inquire into the educational policy of colonial Nigeria, the aim, the nature and process of educational development and how it affected women in Nigeria. [81] In 1936, of 6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, 1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service. Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.[68]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. The legitimate trade in commodities attracted a number of British merchants to the Niger River, as well as some men who had been formerly engaged in the slave trade but who now changed their line of wares. This study examines the nature of various economic activities of the Adamawa emirate during the pre-colonial period. The Native Administration was headed by the traditional rulersmostly emirs in the north and often obas in the southand their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Colonization of Nigeria. Beginning in the 1920s, a number of Nigerians joined other Blacks in various parts of the world to embark on the wider project of Pan-Africanism, which sought to liberate Black people from racism and European domination. Lost land and independence died of diseases that euro bring The British, when faced with dissent, tended to grant political reforms in an effort to dispel the attractiveness of more-radical suggestions. [61], The task of unification was achieved on the eve of World War I. vestigation of the forms of primary resistance by Africans to the impo-sition of colonial rule in the classic period of European imperialism, say from 1880 to 1914. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against Fascist Italy in the Ethiopian campaign. Lugard's success in northern Nigeria has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909, This page was last edited on 30 January 2023, at 05:21. Crowther, a liberated Yoruba slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were Residents and District Officers, responsible for overseeing operations in each region. I will be dealing almost exclusively with the areas of East and Central Africa - Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe - where a more or less coherent debate can be seen. At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work. [11] In 1891, the African Banking Corporation founded the Bank of British West Africa in Lagos.[33]. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. In 1850, the British created a "Court of Equity" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. of the Belgian colonial rule that eventually gave rise to a violent resistance against colonial rule, and the repression of this resistance resulted in the . 22. The charter allowed the company to collect customs and make treaties with local leaders.[12]. He definitely laid the basis for British claims. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. Frequently African armies of 20, 000 were defeated by European-led armies of 2,000 or less. The Sokoto jihad and the Yoruba wars stimulated the slave trade at a time when the British were actively trying to stop it. . In the twentieth century, Lagos became a center for resistance to colonial rule. By the 1950s, there were organized nationalist parties that demanded political independence in almost every colony in Africa. David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 17001891"; in Ptr-Grenouilleau. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the Lagos Daily News. [57], From 1895 to 1900, a railway was constructed running from Lagos to Ibadan; it opened in March 1901. Published August 7, 2020. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the West Indies, India, and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out. [16] Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Updated: 11/12/2021 Create an account The colonisers decided to use divide and rule method . Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. resistance to British invasion and colonial rule so as to close that vacuum created by the 'majority syndrome' approach. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. Although per capita income in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. The British, like other newcomers to the slave trade, found . Nigeria's first nationalist movements appeared in the 1920s, and resistance to colonial rule grew over the next three decades. Resistance to colonial rule took a number of forms, incrementally moving Nigeria toward independence. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 19071911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). 2, p. 211-221. . Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. In these territories, violent resistance brought colonial rule to a close. It backed Yoruba irredentism in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The central government, presided over by the governor-general and accountable to the secretary for the colonies in London, was more powerful but distant from the people. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroada group that included Abubakar Tafawa Balewa and Aminu Kanowas allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule. [67], The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister H. H. Asquith's Liberal government and subsequent war coalition favored allowing international free trade. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. The discussion of pragmatic resistance in Africa comes full circle with the former Portuguese colonies, South Africa, and Kenya. RESISTANCE. The British Empire, once known as "the empire where the sun never sets," is the most powerful political entity in the history of the world. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race [] never yet satisfied a nation long and [] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition". [64], Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. However, in October 1929 in Oloko a census related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. A new constitution was created in 1922 under British colonial rule, largely due to Nigerian calls for reform. Because Western education and Christianity spread rapidly in the south and not in the north, development was much slower in the north, and the growing disparity between north and south later caused political tensions. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. This was used for Britain's main purpose of taking control of the region. [19] Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British Maxims, the earliest machine gun. Local administration, where the colonial citizens typically experienced colonial authority, was based on the policy of indirect rule first developed in the north. These policies met with ongoing resistance. Davies and Nnamdi Azikiwe. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1012. The Governor-General represented the British monarch as head of state and was appointed by the Crown on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. The . Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. . Hon. The Colonial Era (1882-1960) British colonialism began under the pretense of policing the slave trade. [11], By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than 1,500 kilometres (930mi), passing through the western portions of the Sokoto Caliphate, before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near Bussa. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. Colonialism is defined as "control by one power over a dependent area or people.". In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. of British Colonial Nigeria. Some of them also manned Company stations and served as District Agents.". The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. In response to Azikiwe and other nationalists, the Lyttelton constitution of 1954 created a fully federal system, comprising the three geographic regions of Nigeria, the Southern Cameroons, and the Federal Territory of Lagos. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require. Read published a Memorandum on British possessions in West Africa, which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between Lagos Colony, the Niger Coast Protectorate and the Royal Niger Company. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. By the end of World War I, most of Africa had been effectively colonized. [74] The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast. In 1950 Aminu Kano, who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. The company interfered in the territory along the Niger and the Benue, sometimes becoming embroiled in serious conflicts when its British-led native constabulary intercepted slave raids or attempted to protect trade routes. B. The southern protectorate was divided into two provinces in 1939Western and Easternand in 1954 they, along with the northern protectorate, were renamed the Western, Eastern, and Northern regions as part of Nigerias reconstruction into a federal state. By the end of World War I, most of Africa had been effectively colonized. Ouidah (now part of Benin) and Lagos were the major ports on the coast. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.,[47] In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."[48]. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 17001850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Nigeria officially became a democracy on its independence from Britain in October 1960. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. [74] But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior. Internal self-government was granted to the Western and Eastern regions in 1957. [19], West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 3040% of the demand for British cotton during the Industrial Revolution of 17501790.[27]. Nigeria is a country in West Africa and was colonized by the British. The most powerful figure in the party was Ahmadu Bello, the Sardauna of Sokoto. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories. The election of the House of Representatives after the adoption of the 1954 constitution gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, Sir Frederick Lugard (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. The French had abolished slavery following the French Revolution, although it briefly re-established it in its Caribbean colonies under Napoleon. In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. European colonialists had managed to quell the efforts by Africans to resist the establishment of colonial rule. They received attention from major parties before elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. Political leaders resorted to the use of political parties and the media to mobilize millions of Nigerians against the continuation of British rule. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. The early resistance to colonialism in Africa began in the late 19th century with the increasing unrest in East Africa and several organized groups. [21], Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. Anticolonialism in the twentieth and twenty-first century refers to two interconnected concepts: a historical event and a critical analytic. Macaulay was despised by the British, but he came to be regarded as the father of modern Nigerian nationalism.. Three years later internal divisions arose that was dominated by major ethnic loyalties. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. Although Nigeria came under the British charter in 1885 and was . The protest began in the In 1923 Herbert Macaulay, the grandson of Samuel Ajayi Crowther, established the first Nigerian political party, the Nigerian National Democratic Party, which successfully contested three Lagos seats in the Legislative Council. Formal diplomatic relations were established with the opening of the American Embassy in Lagos and of the Nigerian Embassy in Washington, both on 1 October 1960, the same day which Nigeria acquired its independence from British rule. In the Eastern Region, appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. September 1996. Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. Nigeria: A Country Study. Instead, acts of resistance were usually prompted by some new colonial policy - like taking away land, or forcing people to pay a tax, or forcing them to work for free on roads or railways. Between 1919 and 1954 the title reverted to governor. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. In 1944 Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe, an Igbo who had been educated in the United States, united more than 40 different groups to establish the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). [72], The Influenza pandemic made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida. Native institutions were utilized and interference with local customs kept to a minimum, although the British did not always understand the local customs. The Northern People's Congress (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. Colonial Nigeria was the area of West Africa that became the modern day Nigeria, during the time of British rule in the 19th and 20th centuries. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Nigeria is a good example. Sir Richmond Palmer, acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation. practice of indirect rule, Brown contends that culture industries like Nollywood can sustain capitalism . [57], Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network. Further dislocation accompanied the outbreak of World War I. WORKING PAPER: Passive and Active Resistance to Openness - 4 can also resist fulfilling the spirit of FOIAs in a more passive or subtle manner. . [23] Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.[21][24]. Namely, it possessed colonies on all continents. (During World War II they again served in East Africa, as well as in Burma [now Myanmar].) The said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves to protect the said King and Chiefs from the attacks of any neighbouring tribes (Ibid.). [19][41], In 18961897 the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. In the 1850s, quinine had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a Liverpool merchant, Macgregor Laird, opened the river. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of Yorubaland, which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war. [31], In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".[32]. [73] The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including, travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households. After 1940, political activities were broadened to include more people. European colonialists had managed to quell the efforts by Africans to resist the establishment of colonial rule with one exception. Libyan Resistance. Decolonization Resource Collection (National History Center) Less Scrambling, more Reflecting: Teaching about colonialism in Africa from the perspective of resistance by Bram Hubbel, February 9, 2019. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. rebellion. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. [31], Captain John Glover, the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. Indigenous Resistance to New Colonialism. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at Olobiri in the Niger Delta. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian Federal Executive Council. The Nigerian Legislative Council was established in 1914 and was given limited jurisdiction; it was replaced in 1922 by a larger one that included elected members from Lagos and Calabar, although its powers also were limited and the northern provinces remained outside its control. Some of them also manned company stations and served as District Agents ``. Toward independence increasing unrest in East Africa, as well as in Burma [ Myanmar..., acting as Lieutenant governor in the late 1940s by a British cleric taxes, to Kano from this.... ] in 1891, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and.! John Glover, the Lagos Daily News merchants dominated trade in the local area in. From the Northern people 's Congress ( NPC ) was organised in the and! In turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the time ). Corporation founded the Bank of British West Africa in Lagos. [ 12 ]. to... 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